Linguistics Plus Essay

A. The Backround Of Study In the preceding chapters , linguistics has been discussed mainly as the scientific study of languages. According to this view, linguistic is a theoritical, abstract, academic subject. It describes the nature of human language activity in scientific terms and linguistics are see to belong to different schools of thought and to hold competing linguistic theories. We have seen what this view of linguistics has to contribute to language teaching. There is another view of linguistics which cuts across all schools of linguistic thought and is common ground among all linguistics. In this view,linguistics is abody of attitudes and knowledge which result from the study of things like nature of language as a communicative, social activity : language in the individual , his speech mechanism and mental capacities for language : language in society : varieties of language , the rigorous description of particular languages , etc . This common ground the linguistics is immediately relevant to whole field of language teaching . B. The Formulation Of Study Based on the backrgound of study that explained, we formulate some problems that will be explained in this discussion, there are : 1. What is the meaning of psycholinguistics? 2. What is language acquisition? 3. is the first language learning the same as first language acuisition? 4. What is the interference from L1 in learning L2? C. The Perpose Of Writing To obtain a focused, it is necessary to tell the purpose of this paper. The purposes of writing this paper are: 1. Make the readers know about Psycholinguistic , language acquisition , First and second language, Motivation in L2 learning , and Language Interference. 2. Knowing the different between First and Secong Language D. Research Of Methodology. There are many methods that can be used in educational research, such as historical method, descriptive method, experimental method etc. We use the description method in order to meet the purpose of the research. CHAPTER 2 LINGUISTIC PLUS (CHAPTER 6 IN BOOK) A. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PSIKOLINGUISTIK As its name suggests, psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. Some of these are: how language is received and produced by language user : our memory span of language: motivation in language learning : how L1 Habits interface with L2 learning billingualism and mental development : the use of language in concept formation; and language acquistion or development. Seperti namanya, psikolinguistik adalah studi lapangan yang menggabungkan psikologi dan linguistik. Istilah itu sendiri diciptakan pada tahun 1951. Meskipun penelitian telah terjadi bahkan pada abad kesembilan belas dalam bentuk studi perkembangan bahasa. Ini mencakup berbagai macam topik yang menarik bagi guru bahasa. Beberapa di antaranya adalah: bagaimana bahasa diterima dan dihasilkan oleh pengguna bahasa: memori kita rentang bahasa: motivasi dalam belajar bahasa: bagaimana Kebiasaan L1 antarmuka dengan pembelajaran belajar L2 dan perkembangan mental: penggunaan bahasa dalam pembentukan konsep, dan akuisisi bahasa atau pembangunan. B. LANGUAGE ACQUISTION TRANSISI BAHASA The last mentioned topic is currently being much investigated by TG grammarians because their linguistic theory makes such on the language producing ability of human beings. It is therefore of interest to them, as it is to teachers, to find out how language is acquired. ( it may be noted at this point that they make a distinction between language acquisition or development and language learning . The first language or mother tongue is acquired, while the second language is learned. ) Topik terakhir yang disebutkan saat ini sedang diselidiki oleh banyak tatabahasawan tradisional grammar karena teori linguistik mereka membuatnya seperti bahasa dapat menghasilkan kemampuan manusia. Oleh karena itu sangat menarik bagi mereka, terutama untuk guru, untuk mengetahui bagaimana bahasa diperoleh. (Mungkin terdapat pada bahasan ini bahwa mereka membuat perbedaan antara penguasaan bahasa atau pengembangan dan pembelajaran bahasa asli atau bahasa ibu yang langsung diperoleh, sedangkan bahasa asing harus dipelajari. ) There are two theories of language acquisition: the cognitive-code learning theory f-voured by the transformational generative linguists and the habit-formation theory of the structural linguists. The habit-formation theory is in effect the aplication of learning theory to language acquisition. It involves conditioning and reinforcement to shape a response until it is like the model . An example mat make the process clear. An infant may accidentally produce what sound like â€Å"mama† ,on his babbling and the mother reinforces this by smiling , kissing, cuddling him.. This encourages him to produce the sounds again and the nearer they approach the word â€Å"mama† , the more pleasure the mother shows until the child learns to say the word correctly every time with reference to her. The whole process is described as â€Å" shaping† the response and strengthening it by selective reinforcement. The response is encouraged to recur or strengthened by the smile or nod , or whatever is reinforcing to the child. Repeated occurences of the response from habit. Imitation plays as important a role as repetition in the theory. The child imitates the adults he hears and is again reinforced for correct responses. This theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. Ada dua teori akuisisi bahasa: teori belajar kode kognitif mempelajari teori f-voured oleh ahli bahasa transformasi generatif linguistik dan teori-kebiasaan hasil pembentukan ahli bahasa struktural. Teori formasi kebiasaan yang pada kenyataannya aplikasi dari teori belajar akuisisi bahasa. Ini melibatkan pengkondisian dan penguatan untuk membentuk respon sampai seperti model atau contoh yang ada, misalnya sebuah kaset untuk membuatnya sebagai contoh. Contoh lain adalah Bayi yang dapat menghasilkan sebuah kata yang terdengar seperti â€Å"mama†, saat mengoceh dan ibunya memperkuat ini dengan memberikan senyuman, mencium,atau memeluk dia . Hal ini dapat mendorong dia untuk menghasilkan suara lagi dan semakin dekat dengan kata â€Å"mama† yang sebenarnya, respon senang yang ditunjukan ibunya itu terus ditunjukan hinngga anak belajar mengucapkan kata kata dengan. Seluruh proses yang digambarkan sebagai â€Å"pembentuk† respon dan penguatan dengan penguatan selektif. Respon yang didorong untuk muncul kembali atau diperkuat oleh senyum atau anggukan, atau apapun yang dapat memperkuat kepada anak untuk melakukan sesuatu. Kejadian yang diulang dari respon dan dari kebiasaan. Permainan meniru sama penting peranannya sebagai teori. Anak meniru orang dewasa, ia mendengar lagi dan diperkuat oleh respon yang diberikan orang disekitarnya. Teori pemerolehan bahasa didasarkan pada pandangan bahwa bahasa adalah perilaku yang dihasilkan dari kebiasaan dan kebiasaan yang dibentuk oleh praktek dan pengulangan. The cognitive-code learning theory states that language is rule-governed behaviour and that in language acquisition, the infant learns the set of rules that will produce the sentences of the language. How does he arrive at the set of rules? TG grammarians say human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which enables the child to form a series of hypotheses about the language which he hears , as he grows up. At each stage in his language development he tests his hypothesis (the set of rules he has formulated so far) against what he hears ( the language data) and revises it accordingly , until he reaches adult competence. But what does the LAD consist of? The theory is that it consists of those linguistic universals to be found the deep, deep structure of all languages. There is no agreement or certainty yet about what these universals are apart from the  fact that they must be certain abstract syntactic and semantic categories and relationships, though there may be a neurophysiological basis in the brain. Examples of such relationships which have been postulated are: those between noun and verb as in case grammar; that between subject and predicate; and catagories like NP , VP , Adv. These universals are said to be present in the structure of all languages but each language realises them in different way in surface structure and language learning consists in learning how it is done in that particular language . The linguists are making cross-cultural studies of language acquisition in order to get evidence of linguistic universals, but the data collected so far are still sketchy though certain features in language appear in about the same sequence and at about the same age all over the world. Teori Kode kognitif belajar menyatakan bahwa bahasa adalah aturan aturan perilaku dan bahwa dalam akuisisi bahasa, bayi mempelajari seperangkat aturan yang akan menghasilkan kalimat bahasa. Bagaimana ia bisa sampai pada seperangkat aturan? Tatabahasawan TG mengatakan manusia dilahirkan dengan perangkat penguasaan bahasa (LAD), yang memungkinkan anak untuk membentuk serangkaian hipotesis tentang bahasa yang ia dengar, saat ia tumbuh. Pada setiap tahap dalam perkembangan bahasa, ia menguji hipotesis tersebut (seperangkat aturan yang telah dirumuskan sejauh ini) terhadap apa yang ia dengar (data bahasa) dan merevisi (menerjemahkan artinya), sampai ia mencapai kompetensi dewasa. Tapi apa saja penyusun LAD itu ? Tidak ada kesepakatan atau kepastian tentang apa saja penyusun LAD tersebut dan tak ada yang terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa orang orang universal linguistik harus memastikan kategori sintaksis dan semantik abstrak, meskipun mungkin ada dasar neurofisiologi di otak. Contoh hubungan tersebut yang telah disebutkan adalah antara nomina dan verba seperti dalam tata bahasa, bahwa antara subjek dan predikat, dan kategori seperti NP, VP, Adv. Itu dikatakan terdapat dalam struktur dari semua bahasa, tetapi setiap bahasa menempatkan mereka dengan cara yang berbeda dalam struktur permukaan dan pembelajaran tertentu. Para ahli bahasa membuat studi lintas-budaya , untuk mendapatkan bukti yang umum tentang linguistik, tetapi data yang dikumpulkan sejauh ini masih samar meskipun fitur tertentu dalam bahasa muncul di sekitar urutan yang sama dan pada sekitar usia yang sama di seluruh dunia . The teacher of second language needs to take of these two theories of language acquisition since they have given rise to schools of thought on language teaching. If language acquisition is a matter of habit formation, then the language teacher must concentrate on performance. Let the pupils imitate a model and give them plenty of pattern drill to establish habits of behaviour. Reinforce them gor correct responses and elimitate wrong responses by a lack of reinforcement. Let them learn inductively, inferring the rules for themselves after much practice rather than receiving the rules for explanations at the begining. If, on the other hand, language acquisition is a matter of learning a code, then the language teacher must ensure that the pupils internalise the rules yhat will enable them to produce sentences. Explanations of the sentences structures and explicit knowledge of the rules must then play a larger rule in language teaching. Para guru bahasa kedua perlu mengambil dari kedua teori pemerolehan bahasa karena mereka telah melahirkan aliran pemikiran pengajaran bahasa. Jika akuisisi bahasa adalah masalah pembentukan kebiasaan, maka guru bahasa harus berkonsentrasi pada kinerja. Biarkan siswa meniru model dan memberi mereka banyak bor pola untuk membangun kebiasaan perilaku. Memperkuat mereka tanggapan gor benar dan elimitate tanggapan yang salah oleh kurangnya penguatan. Biarkan mereka belajar induktif, menyimpulkan aturan untuk diri mereka sendiri setelah banyak latihan daripada menerima aturan untuk penjelasan di awal. Jika, di sisi lain, penguasaan bahasa adalah masalah belajar kode, maka guru bahasa harus memastikan bahwa siswa menginternalisasi yhat aturan akan memungkinkan mereka untuk menghasilkan kalimat. Penjelasan dari struktur kalimat dan pengetahuan eksplisit aturan kemudian harus memainkan aturan yang lebih besar dalam pengajaranbahasa. How is the language teacher to decide between the two theories of language learning? What grammatical theory is most useful to language teachers? To answer these questions, i would just like to refer the reader to the paper by J. B Carroll that i cited in chapter 1. In that paper he says. â€Å"it would be pretentious to try to express an opinion on which of the various grammatical theories is most vailed. Different grammatical theories have somewhat different goals†¦ in general. I believe that language teacher should evaluate grammatical theories in terms of the degree to which they comform to the linguistic habits that actually enable a language user to speak and understand the language†. Bagaimana guru bahasa untuk memutuskan antara dua teori pembelajaran bahasa? Apa teori tata bahasa yang paling berguna untuk guru bahasa? Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, saya hanya ingin merujuk pembaca untuk kertas oleh JB Carroll yang saya dikutip dalam bab 1. Dalam kertas yang katanya. â€Å"Itu akan sok mencoba untuk mengekspresikan pendapat yang dari teori gramatikal berbagai paling vailed. Teori tata bahasa yang berbeda memiliki tujuan yang agak berbeda †¦ secara umum. Saya percaya bahwa guru bahasa harus mengevaluasi teori tata bahasa dalam hal sejauh mana mereka comform ke kebiasaan linguistik yang benar-benar memungkinkan pengguna bahasa untuk berbicara dan mengerti bahasa â€Å". As for theories of language learning. Carroll suggest a synthesis of the two. I am inclined to agree with him that neither a pure â€Å"audiolingual habit theory† nor a pure â€Å"cognitive-code learning theory† can be comprehensive and correct. Each of the theories contains elements of truth, and each therefore to some degree wrong or incomplete. We need to extract what is valuable for each theory and put them together. Carroll calls the synthesis â€Å"cognitive habit-formation theory†. Adapun teori belajar bahasa. Carroll menyarankan sintesis dari dua. Saya cenderung setuju dengan dia bahwa baik murni â€Å"kebiasaan teori audiolingual† atau murni â€Å"kognitif-kode teori belajar† bisa tidak lengkap dan benar. Setiap teori mengandung unsur kebenaran, dan masing-masing karena itu untuk beberapa derajat yang salah atau tidak lengkap. Kita perlu untuk mengambil apa yang berharga bagi teori masing-masing dan menempatkan mereka bersama-sama. Carroll menyebut sintesis â€Å"kognitif kebiasaan-formasi teori†. The audiolingual habit theory is correct in that language behaviour is partly a matter habits. The audiolingual method with its emphasis on pattern practice and formations of habits fell out of favour because the theory made the wrong assumtions about that kinds of habits to form and how to form them. Instead of forming habits that have to do. For instance, with substituting words in sentences or with changing one kind of sentences into another. teacher sould form functional habits. The diffferent between the two is that the former takes no account of language ude in actual situations (where is the occasion for substitution for tables in real life outside the classroom?) while the latter does. For example, in teaching commands and requests, it is not enough to present the learners with statements to be changed into commands or requests. The stimulus is the sentence in the case. In forming fumctional habits the stimulus is the situations, the intentions and the listener. In situation A, if you need help you just shout â€Å"help! † ; in situation B, you may say, â€Å"please help me† or â€Å"could you helm me? † ; in situation C, you may say, â€Å"would you mind helping me? † and so on. Teori Kebiasaan audiolingual benar dalam perilaku bahasa adalah kebiasaan sebagian materi. Metode audiolingual dengan penekanan pada praktek pola dan formasi dari kebiasaan jatuh dari nikmat karena teori membuat assumtions salah tentang hal itu jenis kebiasaan untuk membentuk dan bagaimana membentuk mereka. Alih-alih membentuk kebiasaan yang harus dilakukan. Misalnya, dengan mengganti kata-kata dalam kalimat atau dengan mengubah satu jenis kalimat menjadi lain. Guru arwah membentuk kebiasaan fungsional. The diffferent antara keduanya adalah bahwa mantan tidak memperhitungkan bahasa ude dalam situasi yang sebenarnya (di mana merupakan kesempatan untuk substitusi untuk tabel dalam kehidupan nyata di luar kelas?) Sedangkan yang kedua tidak. Sebagai contoh, dalam mengajar perintah dan permintaan, itu tidak cukup untuk menyajikan peserta didik dengan pernyataan yang akan diubah menjadi perintah atau permintaan. Stimulus adalah kalimat dalam kasus ini. Dalam membentuk kebiasaan fumctional stimulus adalah situasi, maksud dan pendengar. Dalam situasi A, jika Anda memerlukan bantuan Anda hanya berteriak â€Å"membantu! â€Å", Dalam situasi B, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"tolong bantu saya† atau â€Å"bisa Anda helm saya? â€Å", Dalam situasi C, Anda mungkin berkata, â€Å"bisakah kau membantu saya â€Å"dan sebagainya?. Carroll also points out that the audingual habit theory wrongly assumed that practice and repetion were crucial factors in the formation of habits. Although practice and repetition have certain roles to play, they are not crucial in learning. Succesive repetition of the same response is, in fact, generally the wrong way to â€Å"stamp in† a habit; there are few kinds of learning where this is effective. Evocation of the response on a number of aperiodic, widely-spaced occasions, with interpolation of different material in the intervals, is a much more effective method has been insufficiently employed in pattern drills. Carroll juga menunjukkan bahwa teori kebiasaan audingual salah diasumsikan bahwa praktek dan pengulangan adalah faktor penting dalam pembentukan kebiasaan. Meskipun praktek dan pengulangan memiliki peran tertentu untuk bermain, mereka tidak penting dalam belajar. Pengulangan berturut dari respon yang sama, pada kenyataannya, umumnya cara yang salah untuk â€Å"cap di† kebiasaan, ada beberapa jenis belajar di mana ini efektif. Kebangkitan dari respon pada sejumlah aperiodik, luas-spasi kesempatan, dengan interpolasi dari bahan yang berbeda dalam interval, adalah metode yang jauh lebih efektif telah kurang digunakan dalam latihan pola. The element of truth in the cognitive-codelearning theory is that a knowledge of the facts and formal rules of the language can really be of help in guiding the learner to form the right language habits. However, knowledge of the rule alone is of on avail unless the learner is given opportunities to form the habits in the way suggested above. Forthermore, the facts of the language should be presented in a form easy to understand, and appropriate to the learner’s age and ability. Abstract rule should be illustrated with a number of concrete examples. Unsur kebenaran dalam teori kognitif-codelearning adalah bahwa pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan aturan formal bahasa benar-benar dapat membantu dalam membimbing peserta didik untuk membentuk kebiasaan bahasa yang tepat. Namun, pengetahuan tentang aturan saja dari pada berhasil kecuali pelajar diberikan kesempatan untuk membentuk kebiasaan dalam cara yang disarankan di atas. Forthermore, fakta bahasa harus disajikan dalam bentuk yang mudah dimengerti, dan sesuai dengan usia peserta didik dan kemampuan. Aturan abstrak harus diilustrasikan dengan sejumlah contoh konkret. C. FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA PERTAMA DAN KEDUA A question often discussed with regard to second language learning is whether it is the same as first language acquisition. The answer depends on the stage at which the second language is learned. If it is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. First of all, the child is exposed to the first language all his waking hours while he probably hears the second language only during the class hour. Secondly, there is a big difference in motivation. A child learning his first language is strongly motivated because his needs and wishes are satisfied by the use of language and his control of his environment and himself increases with his increasing mastery of his mother tongue. Not only this, but emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. Thirdly, as the child learns the first language he is also learning the concepts, while in learning the second language he seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. Finally, the habits established in first language learning tend to inhabit and interfere with his learning of the second language. It is also claimed that there is a critical period for language acquisition which extends up to puberty. But according to Carroll: â€Å"the evidence for a ‘critical period’ and decline in language acquisition ability during the middle school years is not strong, however, and even if there is some decline. I am not persuaded that one must appeal to biology to explain it. † (p. 109) Krashen has since confirmed Carroll’s view. Suatu pertanyaan yang sering dibahas terkait dengan pembelajaran bahasa kedua adalah apakah pembelajarannya sama dengan akuisisi bahasa pertama. Jawabannya tergantung pada tahap di mana bahasa kedua dipelajari. Jika dipelajari pada usia dini sebelum bahasa pertama benar-benar terkuasai, atau hampir bersamaan dengan bahasa pertama, maka pembelajaran bahasa kedua sejajar dengan pembelajar bahasa pertama. Jika dipelajari pada tahap berikutnya dalam bentuk sekolah formal, ada beberapa perbedaan yang diamati. Pertama-tama, anak terkena bahasa pertama selama dia terjaga sementara dia mungkin mendengar bahasa kedua hanya selama jam sekolah. Kedua, ada perbedaan besar dalam motivasi. Seorang anak belajar bahasa pertamanya sangat termotivasi karena kebutuhan dan keinginannya terpuaskan dengan manfaat bahasa dan kendali lingkungannya dan dirinya sendiri meningkat dengan meningkatnya penguasaan â€Å"bahasa ibunya†. Tidak hanya itu, tapi hubungan emosional dan sosial terciptaka oleh penggunaanya terhadap bahasa pertama. Bahasa kedua jarang memenuhi fungsi tersebut bila dipelajari sebagai subjek dalam kurikulum. Ketiga, ketika anak belajar bahasa pertama dia juga belajar konsep, sedangkan dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua jarang ia harus membentuk konsep-konsep baru kecuali konsep-konsep itu asing bagi budayanya sendiri. Akhirnya, kebiasaan-kebiasaan pada pembelajaran bahasa pertama cenderung menghuni dan mengganggu pembelajaran bahasa kedua. Hal ini juga menyatakan bahwa ada periode kritis bagi penguasaan bahasa yang meluas sampai masa puber. Tetapi menurut Carroll: â€Å"bukti untuk ‘periode kritis’ dan penurunan kemampuan akuisisi bahasa selama pertengahan masa sekolah tidak kuat, bagaimanapun, dan bahkan jika ada beberapa penurunan. Saya tidak yakin bahwa seseorang harus menarik biologi untuk menjelaskannya â€Å"(hal. 109). Krashen sejak mengkonfirmasi pandangan Carroll. There is one respect in which learning a first language is similar to learning a second language: it is in the process itself. Just as the young child makes generalisations and says â€Å"foots† or â€Å"goed†, so the Malay learner of English as a second language may over-generalise and say â€Å"foot of the sky† when he means the horizon. In second language learning there is also imitation and modelling, just as there is in first language learning. Ada suatu kecocokan dimana pembelajaran bahasa pertama mirip dengan belajar bahasa kedua: yaitu dalam proses itu sendiri. Sama seperti anak muda yang membuat generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots† atau â€Å"goed†, begitu pula pelajar Melayu yang belajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua mungkin over-generalisasi dan mengatakan â€Å"foots of the sky† ketika ia bermaksud mengatakan â€Å"the horizon†. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua ada juga imitasi dan modeling, seperti yang ada dalam pembelajaran bahasa pertama. D. MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING MOTIVASI DALAM PEMBELAJARAN L2 It was mentioned above that there was a difference in motivation between first and second language learning. It is the lack of motivation that produces little or no difference in student performance in response to improved teaching methods or materials. This problem of motivation in second language learning has been studied and two kinds of motivation have been distinguished. One is called instrumental motivation: this is when the student learns the second language for instrumental purposes. For example, it may be a compulsory school subject or it may be required for post –graduate work, for his career or for travel abroad. There is no desire on his part to go beyond the language as a tool to fulfil rather limited purposes. The other kind of motivation is called integrative. In this case, the student learns the second language with the desire to identify himself with the native speakers and to enrich his life by contact with another culture. It was found that students with integrative motivation have greater success at learning the second language than those with merely instrumental motivation. Telah disebutkan di atas bahwa ada suatu perbedaan dalam motivasi antara belajar bahasa pertama dan kedua. Ini adalah kekurangan dari motivasi bahwa motivasi menghasilkan sedikit atau tidak adanya perbedaan terhadap prestasi siswa dalam menanggapi metode pengajaran atau materi. Masalah motivasi dalam belajar bahasa kedua ini telah dipelajari dan dua jenis motivasi telah dibedakan. Satu disebut motivasi instrumental: yaitu ketika siswa belajar bahasa kedua untuk tujuan instrumental. Sebagai contoh, mungkin suatu subjek sekolah yang wajib atau mungkin diperlukan untuk tugas pasca sarjana, untuk karirnya atau untuk perjalanan ke luar negeri. Tidak adan keinginan pada bagiannya yang melampaui bahasa sebagai alat untuk memenuhi tujuan yang terbatas. Jenis lain dari motivasi disebut integratif. Dalam hal ini, siswa belajar bahasa kedua dengan keinginan untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan penutur asli dan memperkaya hidupnya dengan kontak dengan budaya lain. Ditemukan bahwa siswa dengan motivasi integratif memiliki keberhasilan yang lebih besar dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua dibandingkan dengan motivasi instrumental. E. LANGUAGE INTERFERENCE GANGGUAN BAHASA Another aspect of psycholinguistics that is directly relevant to second language teacher has been touched upon in discussing contrastive analysis. That is, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. The theory is that in learning L1 certain habits of perceiving and performing have to be established and the old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on. We noted in the last chapter that though such interference does occur, not all errors in L2 learning can be accounted for by interference from L1. L2 learning like L1 acquisition appears to proceed by stages when new bits of the language are imperfectly learned, giving rise to what has been called interlanguage. Aspek lain dari psikolinguistik yang secara langsung relevan dengan guru bahasa kedua telah disinggung dalam pembahasan analisis kontrastif. yaitu, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. Teorinya adalah bahwa dalam belajar L1 kebiasaan dalam mengamati dan performing harus dibentuk dan kebiasaan lama cenderung selingan dan mengganggu pembelajaran, sehingga siswa berbicara L2 dengan intonasi L1-nya atau urutan kata L1-nya , dan seterusnya. Kami mencatat dalam bab terakhir bahwa meskipun gangguan tersebut tidak terjadi, tidak semua kesalahan dalam pembelajaran L2 dapat dipertanggungjawabkan oleh gangguan dari L1. pembelajaran L2 seperti akuisisi L1 muncul untuk melanjutkan secara bertahap ketika bit baru dari bahasa tidak dipelajari secara sempurna, sehingga menimbulkan apa yang disebut interlanguage. CHAPTER III CONGCLUTION From chapter 2 in this report , we make some point : 1. Psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. 2. theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. 3. If the second is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. – different motivation. – Emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. Meanwhile, The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. – When we Learn first language, we also learn the concepts, while in learning the second language we seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. 4. The old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on.

A Relation of Difference: The Politics of Black “Signification”

Louis Gates, Jr’s examination of the â€Å"the tropes of tropes† in Afro-American literature is a pioneering account of the vicissitudes of a movement of difference. As a critical response to The Signifying Monkey, the essay would seek to reveal the idiosyncrasies of Gates’ literary criticism with relations to the idiosyncrasies of black literary tradition of difference.The Discreteness of Black DifferenceThe second chapter of Louis Gates, Jr.’s famous book The Signifying Monkey has a wonderful analysis of the rhetoric system and Afro-American signification traditions.The black concept of signifying, quite differently from the standard English, is inherently difficult to comprehend as it (re)doubles itself at every attempt of closer examination. Gates (1988) forcefully argues that parallel to the â€Å"classic confrontation between Afro-American culture and American culture, there is a political and metaphysical, â€Å"relationship that black â€Å"Sign ification† bears to the English â€Å"signification† is, paradoxically, a relation of difference inscribed within a relation of identity† (p.45).It is important to note the organic relations black literary traditions have with the identity of blacks, which are again (re)constructed through these traditions themselves. The discreteness of Black difference emerges from its status of being parallel to the white American literary universe.Intertextuality is also a discrete feature of the Afro-American literature as â€Å"each poem refers to other poems of the same genre† (Gates, 1988, p.60). Here, the repetition and revision of structural elements are something common and shared.It must bee seen as a narrative technique for emphasizing the common signifier which is a de facto priority for the community. Therefore, Gates asserts that â€Å"value, in this art of poeisis, lies in foregrounding rather than in the invention of a novel signified† (p.61). Needl ess to say, the common signified in black literature as a shared meaning is diametrically opposite to the white American idea of new signified as authentic.Moreover, it is possible to argue that the Black English itself is a different language and the blacks do not speak the same language of the whites. For Gates, the language of blackness encodes and names its sense of independence through a rhetorical process that we might think of as the Signfyin(g) black difference. For Blacks, language and its discreetness is a question of (re)inventing themselves as creative, as opposed to the white imposed idea of being imitative.In addition, for blacks, a new language with their own jargons is a tool for ultimately defining themselves.   The black life is more about the living poetry in the streets than the taught poetry in the class rooms.   The question of black Signifying is a question of another way of life that is not centered on the literary paradigms of white male Europeans.The as sertion of the politics black difference by Gates is not an attempt at molding a difference for a new zone of engagement. But, it is the simple assertion of what really exist as the difference of both living and creating since slavery as â€Å"black people have been Signifyin(g), without explicitly calling it that† (Gate, 1988, p.67).As it is in the white language, black Signification is not merely a form of indirect signification; on the contrary, it is a way of identifying with one’s true identity. Most importantly, Black Signification is a complex rhetorical device that is heterogeneous and multiple.ConclusionThe Signification in black literature is closely related to the discreteness of their way of life. The Black Signifyin(g) is closely linked to the identity and collective belongingness of the blacks. The Significations stands not with its meaning, but with its utterance itself.ReferenceGates, H. L, Jr. (1988). The Signifying Monkey: a Theory of Afro-AmericanLit erary Criticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 44-89

The changing nature of competition within the global pharmaceutical Assignment

The changing nature of competition within the global pharmaceutical - Assignment Example The nature of the competition in this field has also been in a constant state of revolution along with its changing entities. While, in the 1960’s regulatory controls were held on a lighter end, due to rapid expansion of the industry along with the medical practitioners insensitive to the price entity; on the other hand, the industry demographics shifted in the 1970’s following a series of events, to constitute an environment that was ruled by strong regulatory bodies and increased patent protection. This is just the example of how industry shifted over a period of two decades alone. Over this period the competition started to get a boost through introduction of generic medicines competing on price. This entity of generics had a major impact on the level of competition in the pharmaceutical industry in terms of providing incentives and a race to market. In other words switching to generics is one of the most common and convenient ways to save cost. They are even being u sed as fist line treatment options with patent drugs used only once they fail. This also presents with it increased rivalry and competitiveness within the industry. Such challenges have been attempted by the organizations to counter using various strategic responses such as disease management initiatives or demonstrating added value offerings of the drugs in terms of various related entities. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis: Threat of Substitutes: When it comes to the pharmaceutical industry, the primary threat that the companies is faced with is of Generic Brand Medication. However, they may be countered through the factor of patents. Other than that, companies in the pharmaceutical industry can also be faced with threats from Complementary Alternative Medicine and alternative medicine which could serve as substitutes; with alternative medicine would serve as a substitute even more so based on the fact that it is not influenced by the pharmaceutical industry (What is CAM?). Th reat of New Entrants: The pharmaceutical industry is an industry that has exponentially high barriers to entry making the threat of new entrants as being relatively low. A few of such barriers are the great costs required to enter the industry, extremely high Research and Development investments, costly and time consuming production process, which combined with strict government regulations and patents makes it really hard for anyone to initiate an entity in this field be it even the big bees. Also, the established firms in this industry are strong enough and well differentiated along with having a loyal customer base making it extremely hard for anyone to develop a brand name and get it recognized (Pharma: Through Porter's Eyes, 2004). Bargaining Power of Suppliers: In terms of the supplier side of the pharmaceutical industry, we see that it constitutes of various entities such as raw material producer and suppliers, local- co-marketing partners, internal labour and even the patien ts for clinical trials etc. When it comes to the threat presented by the supplier side in terms of their bargaining power we see that though all the suppliers present with themselves varying degrees of threat, but it is no more bigger than the threat presented by any such suppliers in other industries either. So, we can say that though there is some extent of threat present, but it is not that exponentially high. Bargaining Power of Buyers: The biggest buyer of the pharmaceutical industry is the government sector and it is one that can impose pressures on the pharmaceutical companies to achieve their own purpose. In addition to that, big hospitals and drug stores can pressurize the company to lower its prices provided

Elements of Governance Reform Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Elements of Governance Reform - Coursework Example This act is the latest most effective regulatory reform intended to rectify major corporate misleads in future. Arthur Andersen LLP’s role in the revolutionary scandal of Enron is reflected in one important part of SOX Act which standardized requirements to ensure the independence of the auditors. Major failure in accountability and disclosure of few leading nonprofit firms and penetrated media coverage of this failure by nonprofit organizations cast the nonprofit sector in an unethical and unfavorable light. This also damaged the integrity and trust of people across the world on the nonprofit organizations along with the benefit of the nonprofits organizations. Although most of the provisions of Sarbanes Oxley Act have currently been applied to only publicly traded companies nonprofit organizations could benefit by adopting these provisions. Apart from this, voluntarily adhering to the Sarbanes Oxley Gold standards would generate more ability and credibility to appoint more e fficient members in the boards of nonprofit organizations. This also can attract many potential fund donors, foundations, and many other potential financial funding resources. The nonprofit sector that enjoyed light oversight and little regulations have now highly focused on the new demand for standardized corporate governance. If the nonprofit sector wishes to retain its higher extent of self-regulation, the board and top management of the organizations need to put accountable effort to improve the organizations in terms of corporate governance and financial transparency. If the current situation does not improve the whole sector may come down under unwanted regulations of government. Some attorneys general of states already criticized that additional SOCK provisions need to be applied to nonprofits.

Poverty and Crimes Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Poverty and Crimes - Annotated Bibliography Example It is useful because he used actual people who were involved as crimes as both a victim and one who created the crime. When looking at specific poverty areas and this article gives insights as to how it looks from the other side of victimization. Bausman and Goe discuss "economic marginalization" and how it has more to do with an environment that can perpetrate crime instead of only economics. They say that most researchers only look at the economics but there are many other factors that create crime. This article is interesting because it points out that people who are unemployed have a challenge because they have to meet their needs in some way. They state that unemployment is a large factor that can create more property crime and that unemployment can create more crime in any area. Since I am looking at the fact that poverty causes crimes this article shows a link between lack of employment as one of the factors in crime. It is important to find out what factors make juveniles commit crime. In order to create prevention programs these authors felt it important to identify characteristics and circumstances that make juveniles create crimes. The authors wanted to create a profile of what a juvenile would look like who creates crimes. Part of my paper will deal with what we can do to stop crime. Since there are problems that our society cannot fix it is important to identify what characteristics may lead an individual to commit a crime. This article gives some ideas of what this would be like and will fit into the last aspects of my paper. This is a discussion of how alcohol and drugs influence crime and which crimes are committed. The authors have created a scientific study of how drugs and crime work and they have given a thorough study. Chapter 5 details the drug and crime connection and how they work together to create problems in the community.

Nurses and the Affordable Care Act Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nurses and the Affordable Care Act - Coursework Example For instance, through this legislation, the government intends to encourage nursing education and mitigate shortages of nursing professionals in many of its states offering them with loan facilities as well as the opportunity to get a proportion of their loan cancelled. According to Wakefield (2010), the legislation also offers a wider opportunity for deserving nurses to appear in leadership positions within the sector. In the words of Davis, Abrams and Stremikis (2011) too, â€Å"the Affordable Care Act invests $1.5 billion over 2011–2015 for the National Health Service Corps to provide scholarships and loan forgiveness for primary care physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants practicing in health professional shortage areas.† Applying the above discussed facts of Affordable Care Act, it becomes apparent that the government is taking realistic and effective measures to encourage participation of nurses in almost every sphere of the healthcare sector in America. This would help in dealing with the major issues prevalent in the domain. At the onset, it will address the long-lasting inhibition amid the nurses that they lack adequate opportunities to be in the leadership position of the industry. On the other hand, it is expected to ensure diversity as well as uniformity in the trend of delivering nursing services to the population in rural areas of the nation, apart from those regions suffering from shortage of these professionals. Therefore, with greater growth opportunities and financial aids, it gets justified that the new legislation serves with a greater voice and diverse set of choices to the nurses influencing the future of these professionals as a group as well as

Spiritual Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Spiritual Assessment - Essay Example From this report it is clearc that a man's whole being is mostly moulded by spirituality and religion. These signs of well being can be seen by the clothes and accessories that a person wears, ones spiritual practices and rituals, participation in religious community and beliefs and philosophy in life. Some religious practices can even be seen on how a person grow and style their hair. Spirituality speaks of ones personal growth and awareness. It is a recognition of something outside of one’s self that cannot be defined. It is a personal quest for seeking the meaning of life.This study highlights that religion on the other hand, is a dogma and the existence of a higher power. It is the belief of sacredness, moral codes and values being supported and practised by an organization. Even though spirituality and religion are different, it can or can’t be interrelated. Religion can be practised with spirituality. Spirituality can be practised without being so religious. Spiri tuality and religion can be addressed in different ways. In the nurses and doctors point of view, the idea of the role of spirituality in a patient’s life will help them understand the patient’s response to an illness. In an article by Cancer.gov a spiritual assessment may help the doctor understand if a patient will use religious or spiritual beliefs to cope with the cancer diagnosis and treatment.  In a world where many different religions exist, it is important that a nurse should know the patients spiritual beliefs before conducting spiritual assessment to the patient.... There are many different kinds of medical treatment beliefs applicable to different kinds of religion. Mary Ellen Zator Estes (2002) had differentiated the medical treatments applicable for different religions. In Judaism, medicines and physician were held in high esteem. Patients also seek care for oneself through prayers and proper visitation. For an Islam patient, medical care is encouraged; however, female bodies should remain covered during treatment. Roman Catholic patients are encouraged to seek medical care and once confined in the hospital, visitation, anointing of the sick and prayer is practised. Same with Roman Catholic, Protestant patients also seek medical attention and anointing of the sick as well as prayers are being practised. Jehovah's Witness patients seek medical care when they are ill, however, during operations or when blood is needed, ingestion of blood nor any other blood products are prohibited. Upon knowing these beliefs, spirituality and nursing processes can now be applied. It is important that spiritual assessment be applied in nursing and giving care for a patient. SPIRITUAL ASSESSMENT George Fitchette (no date) described spiritual assessment as the process of discerning the spiritual needs and resources of the person with whom nurses are working with. Unlike diagnostic models in some medical fields, the assessment model in spiritual care should not simply focus on problems, but also includes the resources that people brings to help them cope with those problems. In short, it is gathering of information with regards to the patient's spiritual status. Spiritual assessment is important for it gives a comprehensive assessment of a patient's spiritual needs. With

Writing for professional practice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Writing for professional practice - Assignment Example Bilby has countless desirability, for guests visiting daily, weekenders and longer-term guests. Recently, the financial value of tourism has totally begun to be respected and treasured. Studies and administration of this resource is currently a foremost apprehension for all stakeholders. According to the argument and controversy over the latest hospital, BRTA has concluded that to carry out an evaluation on tourism in Bilby. The aspects that make Bilby a tourist center include the regional events available in town that make tourist enjoy the Bibly district throughout the entire years, for example, availability of hotels and geographical features. The visitors enjoy the following aspects in the town; walking tour, tours of Agostini’s vineyard, monthly organic farmer’s market, material design special sales, which happen half yearly. Furthermore, other features include the Street life Carnival that occurs every week, and the Autumn Gold Festival that occurs in the month of March during the long weekend. Another aspects that attract the visitors in the society include the film locations fir city stresses country pleasures and the shopping activity. Many shopping sections such as supermarkets and malls have everything necessary to make tourism interesting and captivating. The town is reported to have great natural wonders, for example, the naturally protected in the valley that has magnificent plateaus and mountains overlooking the town. The town council is also reported to have future projects that are planned to be accomplished to improve the tourism department in the town in the future. Some of the plans include; the boardwalks for the graveyard, bird hide observatory over wetlands and further wind farm on Bilby Plateau, extension to the museum and lastly the leisure centre that will create the promotional opportunities (Harris, Williams and Griffin, 2012). Julia Rudd, CEO of the Bendalong Regional Tourism Authority (BRTA) and other stakeholders

Loitering in Terms of the Criminal Law Assignment

Loitering in Terms of the Criminal Law - Assignment Example The assignment "Loitering in Terms of the Criminal Law" talks about the first amendment of the constitution that refers to the loitering and protects the due process clause "freedom to loiter for innocent purposes". In enactment of the ordinance proscribing loitering, it was intended that gangs were prevented from possessing dominion, over the public streets. Liability will only set in if an individual disobeys an order by a law enforcement officer, to disperse when asked to. As per the ordinance, the police have a duty of care to the residents, of maintaining peace and dispersing groups of individuals who inhibit it. Individuals must be protected from these gangs, as they induce fear to the extent that they are forced to remain indoors. In addition, they should be protected from threats, by these persons, which remain in one place without an apparent purpose, as they watch the residents’ movements and attack them at an opportune time. The USA Patriot Act was established, to curb and punish acts of terrorism and enhance law enforcement. Initially, the act dealt with international terrorism acts. However, domestic terrorism was added to the definition of terrorism. As provided in section 802 of the act. Any act that endangered human life, was a form of domestic terrorism. Despite criticisms on the provisions of the act, it provided determent against terrorism at the best interest of the citizens, if the terrorists actions, were intended to guide government’s policy, by intimidation or coercion.... tained, so as to help in supporting, conducting or concealing an act of terrorism and more so, if the property is derived from, involved in, or used to commit an act of terrorism. An assertion of a probability, of believing that an individual or an entity has committed terrorism against the country, residents or their property; calls for action and as such, any provision permitting the government to curb and punish such acts is not unconstitutional. If a person negligently fails to perform his duty of care, he/ she will be liable for damages. However, the plaintiff ought to prove beyond reasonable doubt, that he suffered loss as a result of the defendant’s negligence. Secondly, he must prove that he was within the scope of that duty, and lastly, prove that there was breach of duty, and as such, fair and reasonable to impose liability. The state statute will be held void for vagueness if it fails to justify the three conditions (Scheb, 2011). Courts are justified by all means, to impose a requirement that prosecutors prove the defendant’s intent to escape. Escape is the voluntary departure from custody. It is justified as escape, if without permission, the defendant, voluntarily leaves custody with intent to avoid confinement. Prosecution must prove that the defendant had no intent to leave and not to return. As such, intent would be held as proof of the crime of escape. In addition, the prosecution can bring forth evidence of threats and violence, as the cause for the action taken, which the jury considers. In such cases, the conditions necessitating the defendant’s departure must be relatively mild and alternative remedies such as consulting the wardens, put into consideration. The general principle, â€Å"justification by choice of lesser evil† provides that the

Finance and accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Finance and accounting - Essay Example As a result, auditors in this case are required to review the accounting information in order to determine how well the business is doing. It requires proper financial statements which provide a clear insight on the economic health of these accounting companies. Generally, it gives an insight on the company’s soundness in the short and long term. As a result, financial analysts, investors and also the members of the public are in a position to try and gauge a company’s competitiveness in the market place. KPMG in accounting business is trying to strengthen its legal function in trying to ensure that our structure, processes, and policies meet the highest levels of the accounting profession. Challenges that accounting companies face Bad debts: In his presentation, Judge Holmes, for example in the year 2011, the financial markets witnessed negative vibes mostly on the currency markets after their investors shunned risky assets which eventually led to the low yielding asse ts. This was witnessed by one German representative who said that the European mounting debt crisis could not be easily cured during that month since its leaders had to meet and discuss how to prevent the debt crisis from even getting worse (Skinner 97) Unemployment is still another challenge in Europe which is mostly affecting the accounting companies at the moment. ... (Skinner 99) The Greek debts have also increased and this has also affected the European countries. When it comes to the U.S. economy, without funds and investments, there are no ways the country can survive in this economy since unemployment rates has risen to shocking numbers and as a result, the economic uncertainties have led to political pressure and lack of leadership (Skinner 109) How to solve these problems According to Holmes, in trying to solve these challenges, a survey can be done whereby the businesses can be broken into six sections which are; the current firm condition and its prospects for its growth, the company’s growth strategies as well as its tactics, the businesses challenges and its threats, the profitability management, the existing client retention and the company’s profit margin. Through this survey, the companies can drive growth in the coming decades, for example by selling most of their existing services to both current and also the new clie nts. Accounting specialists (professionals) are also more needed, because it is with the help of the accounting specialists that most of the accounting companies will be in a position to reduce all these debts hence leading to their growth. Strong internal accounting/audit is also highly needed in trying to curb these problems. The accounting companies need to hire both the external and the internal auditors with auditing experience, as it is with the help of these auditors that the company can review accounting information to determine how well the business is doing. Risk management methodology is also a measure which can be applied to control these accounting business challenges. This methodology involves the use of certain rules that are used to drive action in a particular business. Many

Feelings towards Essay Example for Free

Feelings towards Essay All throughout this scene there are various indications about the rising tension caused by Eddies feelings towards his niece Catherine. It begins when Eddie confronts Rodolfo about taking advantage of Beatrice and not treating Eddie with respect. I know, but in your own town you wouldnt just drag off some girl, without permission. Here he is highlighting the lack of respect he feels that Rodolfo treats him with. He is referring to Beatrice as some girl, which shows that in Eddies eyes Rodolfo does not see Beatrice as anything special or important. Beatrice (Eddies wife) suspects that Eddies feelings towards Catherine are un-natural and contributes throughout this scene to the rise in tension. Well he didnt exactly drag her off though, Eddie. This would annoy Eddie, as he is not receiving any support, she is also saying that Catherine is independent and chose to go with Rodolfo which would raise tension further. When Eddie tells Rodolfo that he is simply her uncle, Beatrice pounces on this and retorts Well then, be an uncle then. The others would take this at face value, however Beatrice is referring to Eddies un-natural affection for Catherine, which will shock Eddie. Marco then issues a challenge to Eddie, asking him to say what Rodolfo has done wrong. Eddie says that Catherine was never out on the street till twelve oclock at night before Rodolfo came. Marco instantly tells Rodolfo that he must come home early now. By saying this Marco has eliminated the supposed problem, which leaves Eddie with no problem in which he can camouflage his jealousy. Now that Eddie has no more problems but has a dented ego. He begins to create new problems, however he disguises them so that these problems are perceived as concern for Rodolfo; I mean suppose he gets hit by a car, wheres his papers, who is he, you know what I mean? Beatrice states that the same risk is generated during the day when he is at work. Here we see that Eddie is holding back a voice full of anger almost like a car revving up. This simple action is showing the rise in tension as a result of Eddies problem. Eddie now retreats to his rocking chair, showing that he is fighting a losing battle. As Eddie is reading his paper, awkwardness is felt in the room. Catherine reacts by putting the record Paper Doll on; the title in itself indicates the song content. Then Catherine is overcome with rebellion/revolt and asks Rodolfo to dance, causing Eddie to freeze and feel uncomfortable. Rodolfo realises this and refuses to dance however Beatrice and Catherine soon persuade him. As Eddie burns a hole through Rodolfos back he asks, Whats this, a new record? Eddie has heard this song many times before, however he is no hearing it through new ears, new jealous ears. When Marco reveals that Rodolfo is a very good cook, Eddie finds this amusing and mockingly says, Its wonderful. He sings, he cooks, he could make dresses. Thus making another dig at Rodolfo, implying that he has homosexual tendencies. Rodolfo mistakenly takes this as a compliment and smiles thankfully. This is another opportunity for Eddie to put Rodolfo down and he says that he should not be working on the boats but instead working in a dress shop. Yet again he phrases it so that it may be perceived as a compliment. During this speech he unconsciously twists his newspaper into a tight roll, which gives an insight into his somewhat angered/resentful thoughts and also symbolises the rise in tension.

Micronutrient Chart Essay Example for Free

Micronutrient Chart Essay Complete the table below. For each micronutrient listed, describe its function and identify common food sources. Then, review your Personal One-Day Intake Log and identify foods that provide substantial amounts of micronutrients. You do not need to identify every micronutrient found in every piece of food. List those foods in the My Food Choices column corresponding to the micronutrients they contain. Please answer each of the following questions with a maximum of 200 words. 1. What micronutrients are missing from your diet? What foods, that you enjoy, could you eat to supply these nutrients? 2. Micronutrient deficiencies can have many negative effects on your health. What long-term effects can you anticipate if your current deficiencies continue? General Questions General General Questions Resources: iProfile and WileyPLUS ® Read the instructions in the University of Phoenix Material: Micronutrient and Fast Food Presentation located on the student website to complete this assignment.   If you are having trouble making friends on campus, get involved in a club or two. Find any organized activity that you are interested in, and you will automatically be spending time with other students who share at least one of your passions. It can be helpful to have friends who are fellow students but not your immediate classmates. This archive file of SCI 220 Micronutrient Chart comprises: Complete the table below. For each micronutrient listed, describe its function and identify common food sources. Then, review your Personal One-Day Intake Log and identify foods that provide substantial amounts of  micronutrients. You do not need to identify every micronutrient found in every piece of food. List those foods in the My Food Choices column corresponding to the micr Click this link Now for Complete Course https://bitly.com/12C5XsD If you are having trouble making friends on campus, get involved in a club or two. Find any organized activity that you are interested in, and you will automatically be spending time with other students who share at least one of your passions. It can be helpful to have friends who are fellow students but not your immediate classmates. General Questions General General Questions Resources: iProfile and WileyPLUS ® Read the instructions in the University of Phoenix Material: Micronutrient and Fast Food Presentation located on the student website to complete this assignment.

Materials for Constructing a Multi-Storey Bulding

Materials for Constructing a Multi-Storey Bulding When dealing with a multi-storey building it is important to get the right materials as these materials will hold the structure together, the multi-storey building itself is very large and will be constantly in use as it is a hotel so the building will be subjected to different loads and situations. Loadings on beams, columns, frames, pads and floors can cause many structural differences the behave and performance of the material may change due to stress and strain on them, the materials I am going to look at are steel and concrete, these materials are used throughout the construction industry and loads on these materials are important as if the material is not up to the job and does not fulfil the need the beam, column, frame, pad or floor could collapse and cause many injuries and be a health and safety danger so it is important to use the materials in the right way. both materials steel and concrete have the advantages and disadvantages when used, when dealing with a multi-storey building it is important that the material can withstand the pressure it is put under so it would not collapse or break, if this does occur the knock on effect would result in the building to collapse and cause large injurys to civilians within and around the building, to stop this the materials which are used and put under a subject of tests such as being compressed and stretched rapidly any faults such as the material does not meet to the UK standard would be out lined and amended or discharged from use on site, this is also done for health and safety reasons. First looking at concrete it is used often through put construction it is used due to its durability and workability, to get to a workable mix the concrete needs to be cured and portioned first, it is important that the concrete meets the needs this could be the concrete is used to construct a concrete beam and this beam is put under a lot of loads; therefore the beam would need to be able to receive the load and distributed. Every material has Strength this is the ability of the material to resist the forces set up within them by the applied load, when a load is applied movement is made so therefore Stability is needed stability is the ability of the structure to resist overall movement, any load (force) tends to move to a downward direction for the material to keep to its state it should maintain a equilibrium this is done by the material resisting the equal and opposite force, any load that is applied is called a active force, this force can also be distributed this is when the load is applied over full length or area of a structural member this would be used in a pad foundation, also other loads may be called can be concentrated or point where the load is put to a single point or over a very restricted area this is used with conjunction of columns and beams. When the load is put to a material in a form of a beam, column, frame, pad or floor the structural material may be affected in the following ways: Stretch called the tensile force, tend to stretch the material Compress called the compressive force , which tends to squeeze a material Shear force when the force causes one part to slide past the other force which tends to make surfaces of a material slide. Torsional force causes the member to twist If the load is not distributed this can result in the beam could form cracks and collapse due to the load it is receiving this works in vise versa if the beam is being crushed for example the building could encounter an earth quake and the beam is being crushed the beam needs to withstand this to help keep the structure of the building; so therefore tests are made up such as a crushing test this is at the stage where the concrete is being made/ produced (mixing/curing), the concrete is mixed and cured (curing can take weeks) depending on the ratio used in the mix, the crushing test is the mix is set into cubes and at different curing stages, each cube is put under a load at which could be put on the multi-storey structure, once the results of each cube are collected the results are analysed and then a decision is made in which grade of concrete to work with for the build, the formula for the test is: These tests are made to find of the: Shear forces Bending moment Deflected shape Reactions at supports As you can see from the example I have given as time goes on the crunching load has increased, this shows that the concrete cube has become more diverse in strength by every week, from these crushing loads the different concrete grade can be used at different points in in construction. Stress is derived by dividing the load applied by the cross-sectional area of the member Stress (f) = Load/ Area = W/A= N/mm2 Strain is measured by dividing the change in length by the original length Strain = change in length Original length The purpose of beams, columns, frames, pads and floors are to: Resist loads imposed upon it. Transfer loads to the foundation. Provide vertical and lateral stability to the structure. Resist bending. A  Beam  is a horizontal structural member resting on  two  or more supports. Beams can be in many forms such as: Simply  supported   where the beam is resting on two supports. Fixed where the ends firmly built in and do not move Cantilever   where one is   firmly built in at one end and the other end is free Continuous   where the beam is resting on three or more supports. A  Column  is a vertical structural member used in the construction industry to transmit  imposed loads  to other members or to the foundation. Compression, Tension and Shear   When the force on a structural member stretches called the tensile force tends to stretch the material. When a force squashes or compresses the member, this is called compressive force , which tends to squeeze the material When the force causes one part to slide past the other force which tends to make surfaces of a material slide. This is called a shear force Bending, Buckling and Deflection this is most common in columns, columns are mostly made of concrete or steel due to their strength properties, timber may also be used but if a large load it put on the Colum buckling could occur (bend sideways).   A beam could be affected by defection if a large load is put on it, the beam could be made of either steel or timber.   A  bending moment  is occurs when the material resists a force this occurs with beams. concrete is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, course aggregate and water when these are mixed at a good ratio to each other when set it will form a hard solid mass or artificial stone, there is a rule which is used in construction the greater the proportion of cement, the stronger strength of the aggregate , but the water content in the cement is important this process happens in curing the cement over a couple of weeks, as there is more water the cement may not be able to be at its full strength, due to the strength, workability and density of concrete it can be easily made and humans have the ability to create concrete with very specific properties, therefore this material is used allot in design and construction where the manufacture produces a mix when set concrete produced will have desired properties needed. The multi-storey building is made of concrete would consist of: Slabs Columns Shear walls Foundations Reinforced concrete suspended floors Ribbed floors Hollow pot floors Beams Precast concrete floors Concrete is easy to maintain, the first and up most important thing to do is to allow proper curing of the mix as this will allow maximum design characteristics of the concrete mix to be achieved, the concrete when set can be covered in a water resistance paint this will protect the set concrete from water as water is concretes worst enemy; if water sits on the concrete this can stain the surface, allow cracks to form and mold spores to develop making the concrete slippery, this could cause major defects in the construction itself,  the most important thing is to look at temperature when dealing with concrete as concrete can expand and contract, which can force cracking and leave the concrete exposed to increased water intrusion so if crakes do occur these should be filled in and dealt with straight away. Concrete helps to minimise the amount of energy that a building consumes and ensure that the building maintains a level of thermal comfort that is appropriate for its occupants. C oncrete helps buildings to achieve this, as a heavyweight material, concrete acts as a store (or buffer) during the heating season by utilising free heat gains, concrete can It can only be renewed if it is crushed down and grinned into sand. Steel is made up of alloy of iron and carbon, steel can be very useful to the industry of construction, it is used from protective shoes to large beams to small nails, the material is so versatile due to its melting and strengths properties but yet it is lightweight for easy handling this means economical shipping. Precise measurements can be taken meaning very precise cuts of steel can be made so less wastage is made, steel acts as Great protection against the worst weather conditions, Installation is fast and simple, Steel is also recyclable so it is environmentally friendly the steel can be easily malted down and re used for another purpose, to maintain steel it would need to be cleaned regularly and checked for any defeats, when using steel in construction it is important to take in account energy efficiency; if a whole home was built of steel it would be less energy efficient than a wooden house, insulation would be needed to keep in heat this is because metal transfers heat to a colder area more quickly than wood sometimes up to 400 times more rapidly steel studs can create a thermal bridge to the outside of the house, to stop this when the house is being constructed the steel can be warped in insulating board this would help to keep in heat and reduce the thermal bridge, but also one adv antage of steel is the fact that steel can be recycled with ease it can be melted down with not a lot of hassle and the steel can be used to make other things. The sustainability of steel is very good as this material allows, rapid construction on site (therefore reducing site activity) and disruption to neighbors, steel can be precut and delivered in so a system called just-in-time can be used this will reduce site congestion, steel structures are inherently adaptable and extendable, and also steel is multi-cyclable, being 100% recyclable without down cycling. Steel is located in the ground so it would need to be dug out to be used as it is made of carbon and iron, When it is all finished there will be no more. That is why recycling steel is so important. Steel is widely used in construction, due to its properties it is used for mostly columns frames , these would be made of entirely of steel; this is good as steel is very strong but when a load is but on steel from both ends such as a column the column could compress and buckling effect could happen, also if the load is great enough column could break (snap) .  

Animals and Humans Are Not Equal Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Ess

Animals and Humans Are Not Equal "Franklin was a vegetarian in his youth, 'believing that killing animals was "a kind of unprovok'd Murder." Later, however, Franklin 'was tempted by the smell of fish being fried. Having seen small fish in the stomachs of fish being prepared, he decided he could eat them if they ate each other." If animals eat other animals to sustain life, animals must be an excellent source of food. Meat contains many vitamins. Animals will have rights when they have the means to enforce them. They don't have the ability to reason as humans do. The human race has such a vast understanding of the necessities for all of the different species of animals to exist. Humans are far superior to any other animal because they are so advanced in technology. One advantage of advanced technology is, humans can store information as reference material. With all of this reference material humans can look back at previous mistakes so they don't do the same thing again. With this knowledge, humans can see and predict outcomes before a choice is made. Humans have the knowledge to enforce their rights, something no other animal has. The debate of whether animal rights are more important than human rights is one that people have argued mercilessly. Some people think all animals are equal. To understand this, humans must be considered animals. Humans are far more civilized than any animal, they have the power, along with understanding to control many types of sickness and disease. This understanding that humans have, keeps them at the top of the food chain. Factory farms produce the meat that most people in densely populated areas consume each day. The conditions in these farms aren't ideal. There isn't much room in thes... ...and gave them dominion over all that was in the earth. Animals are not equal to humans. There are those who will still fight for animal rights, but one might wonder if this issue isn't just an excuse for some twisted person to do bodily harm to another. "Brian Cass...was left with a three-inch head wound after the attack" (Cass). Here is a quote from the PETA celebrity spokesman, Bill Maher "To those people who say; My father is alive because of animal experimentation,' I say 'Yeah, well good for you. This dog died so your father could live. "Sorry , but I am just not behind that kind of trade off." What kind of attitude is that? Perhaps the people who feel this way should have no more rights than an animal. That is cold, that a person could say that. Human life is the most valuable to God or he wouldn't have given us the means to protect and preserve our rights.

Examining Pascals Argument for God Essay -- Religion Pascal

There have been many responses to Pascal’s proposition. British humorist Terry Pratchett cleverly summed it up in one of his books with a story of a philosopher who said, â€Å"Possibly the gods exist, and possibly they do not. So why not believe in them in any case? If it's all true you'll go to a lovely place when you die, and if it isn't then you've lost nothing, right? (Pratchett 51)† To the average person, it seems as though there are two choices of religion; to believe in God or not to believe in God. Pascal’s theory is that it is better to believe in God, even without reason, because in so believing, you lose nothing, whereas if you do not believe, you stand to lose significantly. On the surface, this wager seems to make an adequate amount of sense, but upon further examination, the argument begins to break down. Pascal states, â€Å"According to reason, you can defend neither of the propositions. (Pascal 444)† He does not think that reason is sufficient to prove God’s existence, nor is there solid evidence one way or the other. â€Å"There is an infinite chaos which separates us, (Pascal 444)† Pascal says, meaning that if there is a God, humans cannot comprehend Him or His actions. This is to say, even if God exists, humans could not possibly know enough about Him to prove His existence by proof or reason. This, Pascal says, is why the wager is necessary; we cannot know if He exists, we must decide to either believe or disbelieve based on logic. Pascal says that the choice is between several sets of human qualities or characteristics: the true vs. the good, reason vs. will, knowledge vs. happiness, and error vs. misery. He theorizes that the believer who turns out to be correct in his belief will have true good, agreement with rea... ... of belief that have been created around the deity by humans. Even if there is a God and belief in Him is founded, there is no way to know if He will or will not bestow rewards upon His followers. Pascal’s theory would make sense if it were based on anything other than religion. Theology depends more on personal motivations than a desire for some unknown reward that may or may not exist. Pascal seems to be merely covering his own ass with this wager, telling himself that he is believing in anticipation of his eventual reward. This is not a satisfactory justification for believing in a God for which one has no evidence. Works Cited Pascal, Blaise. â€Å"The Wager.† Philosophy of Religion: Selected Readings. William L. Rowe and William J. Wainwright, ed. Harcourt Brace, Orlando, FL. 1973. Pratchett, Terry. Hogfather. Harper Prism, London, England. 1996. Examining Pascal's Argument for God Essay -- Religion Pascal There have been many responses to Pascal’s proposition. British humorist Terry Pratchett cleverly summed it up in one of his books with a story of a philosopher who said, â€Å"Possibly the gods exist, and possibly they do not. So why not believe in them in any case? If it's all true you'll go to a lovely place when you die, and if it isn't then you've lost nothing, right? (Pratchett 51)† To the average person, it seems as though there are two choices of religion; to believe in God or not to believe in God. Pascal’s theory is that it is better to believe in God, even without reason, because in so believing, you lose nothing, whereas if you do not believe, you stand to lose significantly. On the surface, this wager seems to make an adequate amount of sense, but upon further examination, the argument begins to break down. Pascal states, â€Å"According to reason, you can defend neither of the propositions. (Pascal 444)† He does not think that reason is sufficient to prove God’s existence, nor is there solid evidence one way or the other. â€Å"There is an infinite chaos which separates us, (Pascal 444)† Pascal says, meaning that if there is a God, humans cannot comprehend Him or His actions. This is to say, even if God exists, humans could not possibly know enough about Him to prove His existence by proof or reason. This, Pascal says, is why the wager is necessary; we cannot know if He exists, we must decide to either believe or disbelieve based on logic. Pascal says that the choice is between several sets of human qualities or characteristics: the true vs. the good, reason vs. will, knowledge vs. happiness, and error vs. misery. He theorizes that the believer who turns out to be correct in his belief will have true good, agreement with rea... ... of belief that have been created around the deity by humans. Even if there is a God and belief in Him is founded, there is no way to know if He will or will not bestow rewards upon His followers. Pascal’s theory would make sense if it were based on anything other than religion. Theology depends more on personal motivations than a desire for some unknown reward that may or may not exist. Pascal seems to be merely covering his own ass with this wager, telling himself that he is believing in anticipation of his eventual reward. This is not a satisfactory justification for believing in a God for which one has no evidence. Works Cited Pascal, Blaise. â€Å"The Wager.† Philosophy of Religion: Selected Readings. William L. Rowe and William J. Wainwright, ed. Harcourt Brace, Orlando, FL. 1973. Pratchett, Terry. Hogfather. Harper Prism, London, England. 1996.

Maria Isabella Boyd aka Belle Boyd Essay -- biographies bio biography

Have you ever dreamt of living an adventurous life? Well for me that was reality. I was a spy and actress, mercilessly charming Union officers into giving me information. Dubbed 'La Belle Rebelle' by a French war correspondent, I went by the name Belle Boyd instead of my original name, Maria Isabella Boyd. I have gone in and out of jail, marriages, and careers (three of each). Throughout the whole ordeal though, I have been constant in my loyalty to the Confederacy. Born on May 4, 1843, I was raised just like any other southern lady. My father was a merchant, and I grew up in Martinsburg, West Virginia with my parents, several brothers, one sister, and grandmother. I attended Mount Washington Female College of Baltimore from age 12 to 16. Ever since I can remember I?ve been getting into all sorts of trouble. Once when I was 10, I rode my pony into the hallway of my house causing havoc. I was known to be a fun-loving debutante. People described my voice as low and charming and my figure flawless. It was odd how I was considered either extremely beautiful or completely plain because ...

Communication Delay in Children

Communication & Language Delay in Children Children communicate in many ways. Language and communication help us to socialise and express our needs. Babies use sounds, facial expressions and hand or arm gestures to express the way they are feeling. As they grow older their language skills gradually begin to develop and they will use more complex gestures such as pointing at objects. Language allows the child to express themselves and communicate. Alongside speech, reading, writing, drawing and signing are all important parts of a Childs language development. It is important to identify any delay in language or communication in a Child as soon as possible. Children need to be able to communicate with others in order to express their needs and develop their social skills. Delayed language or communication can have a big impact on all other areas of development and cause behavioural problems for the child born from frustration. A child who is unable to express themselves clearly may display disruptive or aggressive behaviour as they become frustrated that they are not being understood. They might be disciplined for their behaviour if their carer does not realise why they are acting up and brands them as a difficult child. This will cause the child to loose confidence and develop low self esteem. They may also become clingy to their parent or carer, be prone to tearful outbursts and have difficulty socialising with peers. A child with hearing difficulties may appear to be in their own little world and not respond when their name is called. They may also struggle to follow simple instructions or have trouble pronouncing words. Children who can not understand or hear what is being said to them will miss out on vital learning opportunities. The Childs overall wellbeing will suffer as they will feel isolated and upset. The child may withdraw from groups and not want to participate therefore missing out on learning important social skills. Delayed language and communication can also be a sign that there is something more seriously wrong with the child that may require treatment or specialist help such as a hearing impairment or learning difficulties. If the correct help or treatment is not supplied for the child in a timely fashion it will have a knock on effect that will delay their emotional, social and even physical development. It is therefore vitally important that child care practitioners are aware of the signs of communication and language delay in children and are equipped with the right tools and information to be able to help the children and their families. The practitioner needs to be calm, flexible and patient. A child with language difficulties will need extra support that should be tailored to their individual needs and plenty of positive encouragement and reinforcement to help build their confidence. The child may be able to take you to objects that they want or express their need by looking or pointing at objects. Some children may need help when playing alongside others. The Practitioner may need to stay close so that they can help them when they have trouble expressing themselves as well as teaching the children around them to be patient and help them to understand the child. A Childs language could be delayed for many reasons some of these reasons are detailed below: * Hearing impairments – This is a common reason for a delay in language development. There are many different types of impairments ranging from non-permanent conditions such as glue ear to permanent partial of full hearing loss. A child with hearing loss will often withdraw in to themselves and not want to interact with the outside world as they struggle to understand it. The cause of the loss needs to be established quickly so the child can receive the right treatment so their development does not suffer. Non-permanent conditions may be easily treated by a GP, whereas permanent conditions may require specialist help and hearing aids. The sooner treatment is supplied for a child the sooner they can progress their language and communication skills. The practitioner can support them within the setting by working alongside the parents to understand the condition. The practitioner c should provide one to one support and they may use sign language and encourage the other children to use it too. Physical conditions such as an enlarged tongue or a cleft pallet – A child suffering from this kind of physical impairment will usually have a very good understanding of what is being said to them and going on around them. The problem comes when they try to express themselves through speech. They may be unable to speak clearly and may mispronounce words. This will cause them to become frustrated and may result in aggressive behaviour. It might also cause them to feel different and be embarrass ed in front of their peers. Therefore they may withdraw from groups and not wish to participate in discussions. Some of these conditions can be treated by Doctors but others will require speech therapy and on-going support. The practitioner will need to work alongside the therapist and the parents in order to provide the best possible support for the child within the setting. * Stutters or stammers – A child suffering with a stutter or a stammer will usually have a good understanding of what is being said to them and going on around them. They struggle to express themselves clearly and find it difficult to get the words they want to say out correctly. They may hesitiate or say um a lot or repeat the same word over as they try to get out a sentence. This is often because their mind is working so quickly their mouth struggles to keep up! This is considered a normal stage in development for a child between the age of Most children grow out of this in time but for some it may develop in to a habit and a half to five years.. If a child is suffering with a stutter or stammer displays disruptive behaviour due to frustration and feels embarrassed in front of peers so they shy away from group activities or the non-fluency continues for more than 6 months they may require referral to a speech therapist. Practitioners can help the child within the setting by helping to relax the child in order to calm their speech by showing they are listening, making eye contact, nodding their head and smiling at the child. The practitioner should never finish the Childs sentences be patient and allow them plenty of time to speak. Lack of stimulation and language input –Some children to not recieve the level of interaction required with other people to allow there language and communication skills to develop. The child may be left on their own, for long periods and not taken out of the house. Their carer may not talk or interact with them unless it is necessary. In these circumstances the child misses out on all the im portant experiences and interactions that are required in order to enable their lanhuage and communication skills to develop. There are often underlying problems or concerns with children who are delayed due to this issue. There could be a problem with neglect at home or their carer may be depressed and need help. It is important that these issues are also addressed alongside the support required to assist there language development. Often these children simply require time, care and attention in order to help them progress. The practitioner can help by spending time with the child talking and interacting. They must provide plenty of positive reinforcement and encourage them to interact with others and try new experiences to develop their language skills. Picture cards and books can also be used to help them express what their needs and increase their vocabulary. * Shyness – Some children are simply very shy and do not like talking to people they are not familiar with or clam up in situations or places they are not used to. They have a very good understanding of what is being said to them and going on around them but find it difficult to speak due to shyness and anxiety. The parents may tell you that the child is a chatter box at home where they feel comfortable but the child may not say anything when they are at pre-school. The child will need plenty of encouragement and positive reinforcement from the practitioner in order to help them settle and feel at ease within the setting. The practitioner can support the child by playing alongside them, encouraging them to interact with other children and encouraging other children to interact with them. * The child is learning more than one language – Children who are learning more than one language may be slightly slower in learning to talk and communicate. This is because the child has to learn more than one language system. There are many circumstances in todays’ society where this is now the case. Children come from many different backgrounds. The child parents may speak one language at home such as Chinese which will be the childs home language but then they will be exposed to English when they are at preschool or the childs parents may use 2 languages at home. The childs mother might be French and speak French to the child whereas the Father may be English and only communicate with the mother and child in Engllish. Children learn through association and absorption therefore it is important that when within the preschool setting the practitioners only use one language to communicate with the child. This enables the child to associate that language with the setting and put what they are learning in to context. It is very important that the setting works with the childs parents to support their learning and ensure that the child has a positive view of both of the languages they are learning. The parents might like to be involved in some of the activities in the setting so that they can see what the child is learning and help to support their development. Learning difficulties such as Autism – There are many different learning difficulties that can occur in children and all will need specialist treatment that is specific to each individual child. Therefore it is important that they are identified early so that the child can receive the help and support they require in order to progress. Earl y signs of a learning disorder in children are problems pronouncing words, struggling to find the right word, difficulty rhyming, trouble learning the alphabet, numbers, colours, shapes and days of the week and find it difficult to follow directions or learn routines. Children with autism may have trouble making eye contact, appear disinterested in other people and what is going on around them, find it difficult connecting with people and have problems playing with other children. They may use an abnormal tone of voice, with an odd rhythm or pitch, they may repeat the same words over and over, respond to a question by repeating it instead of answering it and refer to themselves in the third person. Once a delay in a child communication and language skills has been identified it is important they receive the help and support required as soon as possible. Each setting should have access to a SENCO (special educational needs co-ordinator) and a EYAT (early years advisory teacher). They should be the first people to be that is contacted once a delay has been identified. They can them come in and carry out observations and assessments of the child in order to help establish the cause of the delay. They can then liase with the Childs parents and the practitioner to discuss what the next steps are and how best to support the child with their development. A referral should be considered if the child is delayed in any of the following areas: * Understanding language that is spoken to them Developing the range of speech sounds appropriate for their age * Developing the use of words and sentences appropriate for their age A referral should also be considered for those children that who are not following the normal patterns of development such as: * Children who use language inappropriately , for example phrases used in the wrong context or tha t don’t make sense. * Repeating learned chunks of language that have no meaning * Children who find it difficult to follow rules or join in with a conversation by looking, taking turns and sharing interest in a subject. Some children may need to be referred to a speech and language therapist. A speech therapist can help support children with a wide range of communication and language difficulties. Any referrals must be done with the full support and co-operation of parents. The SENCO will also be able to get help from the Early Years support team within Leicestershire. They are there to assist settings with the early identification of children with additional needs and provide support for the child and their families. Once again any referrals must be done with the full support and co-operation of the the parents. Practitioners should ensure that they include communication and language development within their planning for the setting. The setting should promote good communication and language skills and display their approach to parents so they can help support it within the home environment. There are many ways to promote good communication and language within the setting. All areas within the setting should be clearly labelled with words and pictures to help the children to understand what they are used for. Boxes within the setting should be labelled with pictures to help the child understand what is in them. Eg. A photo of lego on the box that contains the lego. Pictures and photo cards can also be used to help the children express their needs or to show you what they would like to do. Practitioners should be good role models for the children and ensure that they display good language and communication skills. They should ensure that they listen to the children patiently allowing them time to talk, make good eye contact and sensitively correct children when they use the wrong form of word. Eg â€Å"I readed my book† response from practitioner â€Å"Oh, you are reading your book†. Practitioners should ensure they use simple instructions with short sentences that the children can understand. Open questions encourage the children to think and with encouragement help them to extend their vocabulary and improve their sentence structure. There are many play opportunites that the practitioner can use to encourage good language and communication. One of the most effective ways of doing this is to talk allowed as you are playing with the children and provide a commentary on what you are doing. For example if you are playing with the lego you could say â€Å"We are building our tower up, it is getting higher and higher. Oh look the green block is on top. Ben has a square brick , it is red† As you are talking the child will learn from absorption pick up on the words and make the associations with the objects. Books can play a key part in developing in speech and communication skills. Picture books can be used to help the child learn colours, animals, and objects. Storybooks can be used to encourage language development and sentence structure. The practitioner can ask the child open questions such as â€Å"What is happening in the picture? † or â€Å"What do you think happened next? †. You could even get the child to tell you the story themselves. After reading the story with the child you could then ask them to read the story to you. Although they might not be able to read the words you can see how much they recall from the pictures and how well they listened to you. Roleplay is a brilliant way to encourage imaginative play and increase vocabulary. For instance you could role play a trip to the shops. There could be lots of new language words that you can introduce such as till, basket, shopping trolley, carrots, apples, broccoli, oranges, money, purse, bags etc. Role play is also a good way to get children to interact and communicate with each other in a fun and interesting way. Songs and rhyming are great way for getting children to listen they are also often help children to remember things. Songs and rhymes use intonation, stress and rhythm which all help with aspects of speech development as they are all skills we use when talking. Some songs also involve actions so they are a great way to help children link words with actions or even body parts Eg The song ‘ Head shoulders knees and toes’. It is important to remember that all children are individuals and therefor what works for one child may not work for another. That is why practitioners must ensure that there is a wide vareity of play opportuinites available within the setting to ensure they can cater for each childs needs. They should ensure that regular language and communication observations and assessments are carried out on all the children within to enable them to keep track of their development, plan their next steps and identify and signs of a delay as early as possible.